The Christmas Story

Merry Christmas Eve! Tonight, some of you will be going to a Christmas vigil mass and will probably hear a retelling of the birth of Jesus. It is a familiar story with some key elements - Jesus in a manger, shepherds in a field, and three kings bearing gifts to the newborn child. With these key points, the story is complete, but it was not always this way. The nativity story that we are familiar with today is actually a composite narrative of canonical and non-canonical writings. In the early years of Christianity, the Church leaders spread this hybrid tale to the masses through art, which Pope Gregory the Great described as “the Bible of the illiterate."

The Dijion Nativity by Robert Campin is an example of several nativity stories melded into one. Campin pulled from the canonical gospel of Luke, the non-canonical gospels of Pseudo-James and Pseudo-Matthew, and the popular (at the time) vision of Saint Bridget of Sweden.

Dijion Nativity, Robert Campin, c. 1420

Shepherds from Portinari Altarpiece,
 Hugo van der Goes, c. 1475

The three shepherds peering in at Jesus are from the canonical gospel of Luke. Each of the gospel writers played towards their audience. Luke wrote in Asia Minor for a mostly non-Jewish community. In an attempt to increase conversions, Luke emphasized the idea of Jesus as Savior. To highlight this belief, Luke made sure to always notice “the little people”. He meant to show that Jesus was there for everyone, even those sometimes forgotten by society. Artists also used the shepherds as a representative of the common people. Most Italian artists at this time idealized the figures in their paintings. The shepherds were left natural, sometimes even homely to relate them to the masses. 


The two women to the right of the painting come from the writings of Pseudo-James. The one kneeling is the midwife who helped with the birth of Jesus (which occurred in a cave in this version.) When she discerned that Mary was still a virgin, she ran to share her surprise with the second woman, named Salome. Salome refused to believe without proof, and is punished for her skepticism as fire begins to burn her hand. An angel tells her to bring her hand to Jesus, and in his presence she is cured. This small miracle is insinuated by the way the second woman holds her limp hand as if it had been injured.

The ox and the donkey are now a staple in any manger scene, but they actually originated from the non-canonical gospel of Pseudo-Matthew. The passage reads, "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master’s crib. The very animals, therefore, the ox and the ass, having Him in their midst, incessantly adored Him.” While these farm animals are familiar to a modern viewer, the placement of the infant Jesus on the ground probably seems strange. Where is the manger? Where are his swaddling clothes? The Dijion Nativity like the Portinari Altarpiece, pulls some details from the vision of St. Bridget of Sweden. Her writings describe Mary's white mantel and golden hair, the ox and the ass, the singing of angels, and Jesus naked and shining on the ground. Angels play an important role in many infancy gospels (especially in the annunciation,) which explains their presence in these paintings. 

Portinari Altarpiece, Hugo van der Goes, c. 1475

 Adoration,Gentile de Fabriano, 1423

Both of these paintings are missing one of the other, key theological details of a nativity scene - the magi. The magi play a prominent role in the Gospel of Mathew and are present in Pseudo-James. Biblically, the magi (wise-men, kings, etc.) are not numbered. There could have been dozens of magi, each with an entourage of hundreds. Some artists had fun with this idea, like Gentile de Fabriano in his Adoration. The magi gave artists the opportunity to paint lavishness and opulence. 

Theology and tradition pared the magi down to three men. The number three was chosen because the Bible does mention the three gifts of frankincense, gold, and myrrh. The Church leaders decided that one gift would come from each king, and they were all named and given physical descriptions. Balthazar was the young, African king. Casper was a middle-aged, "Asian" king. And Melchior was an older, European king. The kings were from each of the three known continents as a statement that the whole world was at the feet of the savior Jesus Christ.

Adoration, Paolo Veronese, 1570

Adoration, Andrea Mantegna, 1500

In the 1400s and 1500s (the early Renaissance,) the Church was the main patron of art. The illiterate masses learned most of their theology from art. Artists had to know all the Bible stories front-to-back regardless of canon. They pulled the relevant information form each story to create iconography that could successfully teach the desired message of their religious patrons. The visual traditions they created over 500 years ago continue to influence the way we learn and remember the story of Christmas today. 

Resources:
Doot Bokelman and Prof. Kelly, "The Church and Art" (lecture, Nazareth College, Rochester, NY, Fall 2012)

Essay Tips Part 4: Editing

If my calculations are correct, you probably got your midterm research paper back a couple weeks ago, and it was covered with red pen marks. With only four short weeks left before your final paper is due, you’re wondering how you can improve your writing to boost your grade for this last assignment. Below, I have listed some of the most common mistakes you should look out for while editing your paper. This is a lengthy post, with no pictures, but I promise it will be helpful for you art history students out there.

1. Using “WH” words outside of a question

Who, what, where, when, why, and how. In everyday conversation we say things like “that is where I bought my watch” or “this is how you tie a shoe.”

 However, in a formal paper, “wh” words should only be used when posing a question. So, if this was a formal paper, that last sentence would be a mistake. I could rephrase it as “…words should only be used if posing a question.” I don’t bother making that edit here on the blog because I want to have a conversational tone, but I would never (knowingly) submit a paper with that mistake. Rewriting your sentences can seem tricky at first, but you’ll figure out a way to rephrase. Instead of saying, “We do not know who painted the still life,” say, “The artist of this still life is unknown.” Here’s an example from one of my papers:

Mosaic art thrived even further in the Byzantine Empire where Constantine passed a law exempting mosaicists from taxation.

Mosaic art thrived even further in the Byzantine Empire because of Constantine’s law exempting mosaicists from taxation.

(Honestly, this isn’t even the best sentence because the last half reads a little awkward. I could have simply exchanged “where” for “because” and the sentence would have read fine.)

2. Ubiquitous “they” or “it”

Research papers are rooted in fact, so you want to be sure that you are getting that fact across correctly. Phrases like “it is said” or “they believed” leave things too open ended. Who says this? Who believes this? Art historians? The culture? The artist? Even if you feel like you are being redundant, clarification is always better. Let’s look at an example:

As Christian celebrations moved from the catacombs to newly built churches, they aimed to decorate their interiors with art that exuded permanence.

In this sentence, “they” would be referring to “Christian celebrations” which makes no sense because “celebrations” cannot aim to do anything. I probably thought I was referring to Christians as a whole, but even that is false because not every Christian had a say in church décor. Here is the correction:

As Christian celebrations moved from the catacombs to newly built churches, the church leaders aimed to decorate their interiors with art that exuded permanence.

Now we know the specific decision makers behind church decorations.

Here’s an example where “they” is ok:

Christian artists shared iconography between Christ and the emperor so that the people would recognize his sovereignty.  With the strong tie of church and state in Byzantium, some emperors even requested this similarity so they could identify with Christ, creating a parallel between human and divine rulers.

“They” is being used in the same sentence as “some emperors” so we already know the specific group in question without having to reiterate it so closely.

3. Sentence Variation

In trying to correct the previous edit, it is easy to fall into repetitive sentences. You do not want to start every sentence with the same word, be it the artist’s name, or more commonly the word “the.” Here’s an excerpt from my first research paper:

The vertical depiction most accurately resembles an antelope and typically has a small body, large head, and long horns. The males are usually attributed with the pierced mane like the male in this set. The lace-work mane is not for decoration alone, but also has symbolic purposes. The zigzag pattern represents both the running pattern of the roan antelope, and the path of the sun between the solstices. As a whole, the male figure represents the sun. The female figure is associated with the earth.  The dancers wear raffia coverings in reference to water. The unification of these three symbols conveys the three factors necessary for fertility in both human reproduction and crop growth.  The human reproduction aspect is represented in the presence of the child on the female’s back.  The Chi Wara performance reflects the importance of cooperation between male and female forces. The “male” sun is believed to fertilize the “female” earth through man’s act of farming.

Every sentence (except for one) in this paragraph starts with “the.” Here’s how I fixed it:

The vertical depiction most accurately resembles an antelope and typically has a small body, large head, and long horns. Males in the Segou style are usually carved with a pierced mane like the male in this set.  A lace-work mane is not merely decorative, but also has symbolic purposes. The zigzag pattern represents both the running pattern of the roan antelope, and the path of the sun between the solstices.  As a whole, the male figure represents the sun, while the female figure represents the earth. During rituals, the dancers wear raffia coverings in reference to water. The unification of these symbols for sun, earth, and water conveys the three elements necessary for fertility in both human reproduction and crop growth.  Human reproduction is represented by the presence of the child on the female’s back.  The Chi Wara performance reflects the importance of cooperation between male and female forces. The “male” sun is believed to fertilize the “female” earth through man’s act of farming. 

It’s still not perfect, and I would definitely write it differently now, but 5 sentences starting with “the” is a huge improvement from 10 sentences. Making these changes can be frustrating, but creative rewording will help improve your variations. If the artist’s name is your issue, start by changing up your noun/pronoun. Instead of “Caravaggio did…Caravaggio believed…Caravaggio painted,” try “Caravaggio did… He believed… the artist painted.” Then mix up your sentences more so they don’t have the same cadence and length every time.

4. Word Choice

My biggest pitfall was always word choice. In trying to sound educated, or even in just trying to add variety, I often used superfluous words which only complicated my sentences. (Superfluous being a word that in itself is superfluous.) If there is a simpler way to get your point across, use it. I also used colloquial phrasing, which is ok in something like a blog, but not in a formal paper. Unfortunately, this is not the kind of error I can find with a simple ctrl+f in my papers, so I don’t have an example for you. But, I am sure that there are plenty of websites with examples and corrections for syntax and diction.

5. Expand on Subject-Specific Terms

After doing loads and loads of research, it can be hard to remember that your reader does not have all the background information that you have now. If you introduce a term or concept that is not general knowledge, be sure to take the time to define it and explain its relevance. You don’t need to delve into a whole new thesis, but give just enough clarification so that your reader does not feel left out or confused. For example, in my research paper on Indonesian shadow puppets, I referred to the puppeteers (dalangs) by male pronouns for the whole essay, and even mentioned that it was a profession passed down from father to son. But, I then quoted a female dalang, which took my professor off guard. In my second paper, I spared a single sentence to explain that with the recent growth of performance art schools, the profession was becoming more accessible for woman. I didn’t digress into the details of the whole article I had read about these new schools, but I did give enough background to account for my sudden pronoun change.

6. Create a Plan of Action

So you’ve written your paper and you are ready to edit, but you don’t know how to catch all your mistakes. Everyone has a different technique, but until you learn your best system, here are some suggestions:

·         Read through multiple times – focus on one kind of edit for each read through

·         Read slowly and out loud so that you can catch mistakes that your mind skips over

·         Read the essay sentence by sentence – backwards (this will help you feel the rhythm of your sentences and to check that each sentence is a complete idea on its own)

·         Be sure that every paragraph relates to your thesis and is building towards a conclusion (even if your conclusion is that your original thesis was wrong)

·         If you don’t understand your professor’s edits (double prepositions – what are THOSE?!) take the time to look them up and read several examples until you are sure you know what to look for in your writing

BONUS TIP

Did you know that “Xth century” is “Xth-century” when used as an adjective?

As in: In the 16^th century, paintings were generally . . . vs. 16^th-century paintings generally featured. . .

Bosch Appreciation Post

Detail from Garden of Earthly Delights

There was no way that I was going to let October pass without mentioning my favorite historical artist, Hieronymus Bosch. Before I saw Bosch's artwork, I had no idea that artists from so long ago had such amazing imaginations and could invent hybrid monsters just as well as any sci-fi artist today. I fell in love with Bosch, as most do, with his famous painting, The Garden of Earthly Delights. However, this painting is just the tip of the iceberg for Bosch's creature design. 

I wish I had more time to talk about Bosch in detail, but, like most people around this time of year, I am still scrambling to get the last bits of my Halloween costume together. Are you still trying to figure out what to be? Check out these sketches by Bosch and maybe you'll find some inspiration!

My personal favorite

Judith and Holofernes

The Return of Judith to Bethulia, Sandro Botticelli, 1472

Speaking of beheading, let's talk a little bit about Judith and Holofernes. This classic Bible story tells of a beautiful, young, Jewish widow whom was called upon by her community to entice the Assyrian general, Holofernes, to withdraw his army from their siege on Israel. 

The story was particularly popular during the Counter Reformation because it upheld chastity and virtue in the symbol of Judith. Although asked to seduce Holofernes, Judith uses her wit instead of her body to trick Holofernes. She visits his tent over a course of three nights. On the third night she gets him abundantly drunk until he passes out - think Elizabeth Swan tricking Captain Jack Sparrow to drink himself to sleep on the marooned island. While he is asleep, Judith cuts off his head and brings it back to her town as a new hero. 

Judith, Jan Sanders van Hemessen, 1540

Many early depictions of Judith only show the aftermath of the beheading. Considered to be painted from the male perspective, some paintings show her nude and even as a femme fatale even though that goes against the message of the story. Caravaggio was the first painter to deviate from this tradition. He captures the psychological moment of the killing - providing a truer illustration to the Bible story. Judith holds the sword incorrectly, like a woman who had never held a sword before, which gives an authenticity to the moment. Caravaggio is the first to show the gore of the scene, though his blood is far from realistic compared to his usual naturalism. This Italian painter was inspired by Northern traditions, including the juxtaposition of young and old to emphasize the Neo-platonic virtues of the young and beautiful. 

Judith Beheading Holofernes, Caravaggio, 1598

Artemisia Gentileschi furthers Caravaggio's realistic approach to the Judith story. Her painting is an obvious emulation of his composition and style, but with a few touches that could only be captured from a woman's perspective. In this version, Judith is a common woman with dark hair and a strong build, similar to Artemisia's own body. Her glower is more believable for the act than the questioning look of Caravaggio's ideal beauty. In Artemisia's painting, the maid is not an onlooker, but actively takes a part in the murder, helping to hold down the struggling Holofernes. Artemisia's painting was actually commissioned by a woman, but her husband said it was unseemly for a woman to kill a man, and the painting was hidden away in a back hall until after his death. 

Judith and Holofernes, Artemisia Gentileschi, 1611

Artemisia was well known for painting female subjects through a gaze different than her male counterparts. The comparisons of such paintings make for an easily researched paper. So I will leave you to continue your research on your own. 

Resources: 
Doot Bokelman, "Art History Survey II" (lecture, Nazareth College, Rochester, NY, Spring 2012).
Doot Bokelman, "17th Century Baroque Art" (lecture, Nazareth College, Rochester, NY, Spring 2014).

Cannibalistic Rituals

I’ll be the first to admit that I am not a fan of horror films, especially not the “gore porn” of directors like Eli Roth. However, the recent release of The Green Inferno does open up a discussion on cannibalism.

Cannibalism is not just a figment of Hollywood imagination, but a real practice found in various indigenous cultures. Although no longer practiced, cannibalism was once a central aspect to the ancestor rituals of the Asmat people of New Guinea in the Papua province of Indonesia. 

The Asmat people believed that a man killed in war could not pass into the spirit world until his death was avenged. By killing a man from the opposing tribe, their ancestor’s spirit would be appeased and could rest in peace. The tribes believed that the seat of a man’s power was in his head. To transfer the power of the opponent to the ancestor’s spirit, the avenger must behead the opponent and return to the village. The clan would eat the flesh of the head to complete the cycle of revenge. Of course, if every death had to be avenged, this just created a constant cycle of war between opposing tribes.

The cannibalistic ritual is reflected in the art of this culture. Asmat ancestor poles were actually an integrated part of the ancestor rituals. While the constant cycle of war has ended, the ancestor poles have remained as a symbolic practice. A pole is built to honor the warriors lost in battle. The totems are carved from sago palms in remembrance of the first humans - who were believed to be carved from sago palms. The construction of an ancestor pole mirrors the act of head hunting. The sago palm is cut down and a man is beheaded. They peel the bark from the plant and skin the human. The sap is left to run dry just as the blood is left to run dry from the head.

Carvings on the pole continue the head hunting metaphor. Birds are shown eating the flesh of fruit like humans eating from heads. The bent knees of the figures represent praying mantises. Female praying mantises are known to rip the heads off of the males after mating. Phallic additions are representations of male power.

Each pole is accompanied by a head and the poles are positioned facing the water. Coastal tribes could align them right along the shoreline. The Asmat believed that water provided the route to the afterlife, so the poles sent the souls along this path. After the ancestor ritual was completed, the poles would be returned to the forest to decompose and return to the earth.

Asmat people, Bis Pole, Late 1950

You’ll notice that the ancestor poles from the Met are from the 1950s. I can’t be positive on these poles specifically, but it is common for still-surviving indigenous cultures to make “models” of ritualistic artifacts for museum collections instead of using actual ritual objects. I can only imagine this is true for the ancestor poles since part of the ritual is the decomposition of the pole. If the pole was placed in a museum, the pole could not decompose and the ritual would not complete its cycle – and the spirit would not be at peace. Additionally, since the poles are destroyed after use, uncovering a preserved historic pole would be near impossible.

Sources:

Doot Bokelman, "Art of Indigenous People" (lecture, Nazareth College, Rochester, NY, Spring 2013).

ART HISTORY SPOTTING:

Out of curiosity, I image searched ­Cannibal Holocaust­ – one of Eli Roth’s inspirations for The Green Inferno. In looking at the cover art for the movie’s VHS tape, I immediately recognized it as a play on Goya’s painting, Saturn Devouring his Children. Goya just so happens to be a contemporary to Fuseli, whom I wrote about last week – spooky stuff. Glad this Halloween theme is working out. 

Cannibal Holocaust vs. Goya y Lucientes, Francisco de, Saturn Devouring His Son, 1820-1823

The Nightmare

Happy October! Like so many, this is my favorite month and I can’t help but obsess over Halloween for its entirety. Ever since I started planning this blog back in May, I knew I wanted to do theme entries for October. So, this month I will be sharing the darker side of art history with you.

To start off, I’m going to go with the obvious: The Nightmare by Henry Fuseli. It's a fairly famous painting – I even have a Nightmare Encyclopedia that uses this as the cover image.  

Henry Fuseli, The Nightmare, 1781, oil on canvas, 180 × 250 cm (Detroit Institute of Arts)

Painted near the beginning of the Romantic Movement, The Nightmare reflects the public’s growing interest in mysteries and emotions. Artists had grown tired of religious and court paintings, and wanted to explore new subjects. Romanticism was also partly a response to the Enlightenment. Rebelling against rapid scientific discoveries, artists aimed to prove that science could not explain everything.

Artists and authors alike began to focus on dark emotions, especially that of fear (Gothic novels were on a rise.) In this painting, Fuseli captures the mystery of the subconscious and what happens while you are sleeping. The dark room acts like the hidden and dark places in our mind. The woman is long-legged and rubber-boned, making her seem surreal in her own right. However, clothed in white she seems innocent, making you concerned for the activities occurring during her unaware state of sleep. Not all innocent, her pose adds a sexual nature to the scene. The creature on her chest is identified as an incubus (the male counterpart to a succubus,) which were thought to rape women in their sleep. The horse in the painting is often attributed as a play on the word “Night-Mare,” but “mares” were also evil spirits of the night.

Fuseli left his painting open to interpretation. You can't really be sure if this is an allegory for unexplained sleeping troubles (night terrors, sleep paralysis, etc.), “true” happenings, or simply the dreams of this woman made visible.

Want to learn more? Check out this short essay on the painting. 

Sources:

Doot Bokelman, "Art History Survey II" (lecture, Nazareth College, Rochester, NY, Spring 2012).

Haunted Hungerford

Two terrifying nights of of spooky studios!

So, once again I am going to interrupt our usual art history programming to promote an art event in Rochester. This time though, it's all about Haunted Hungerford!

The Hungerford Building is already a popular destination for First Friday, but you have even more reason to come next weekend! Here's what's happening October 2nd and 3rd, 5pm-9pm.

Over a dozen studios got together to create this delightfully disturbing event featuring lots of themed activities for you to experience. 

Explore the whole building as you visit:

Basement - GruntWerk & Khaos by Design - Spooky year 'round with bone jewelry

Stuidio 150 - Bohan Sather Custom Apparel - Screen print your own Haunted Hungerford-inspired tee

Studio 157 - Grassroots Gallery presents the Ghost Factory - Resurrecting the spirits of our building's history

Studio 205 - Osiris Tattoo Gallery - Featuring the Ghost Buster-inspired poster art by D.john_Rochester

Studio 225 - Genesee Libby - Spectral Photobooth. Instant analog portraits may reveal the mysteries of the undead!

Studio 242 - Cat Clay - Awaken the Totum, introducing The Knotty Owl's new jewelry line plus Cat Clay's ever-creepy ceramics and a spooky playlist

Studio 258 - Blue Toucan Studio - Rip off heads in AMPUTHEATRE: the worlds goriest board game!

Studio 258 - Creativ Framing with Blue Toucan Studio - Get an exclusive look at  the Imaginary Findings of the Elusive Adventurer, Camden Flannery

Studio 316 - Aslam Fine Art - Featuring a selection of dark sculpture

Studio 364 - Lighthouse Tattoo - Hand-printed t-shirts and a screening of The Nightmare on Elm Street series

Studio 368 - Metal Some Art - Design your own metal belt buckle

And once you're done with the tricks, get ready for some treats!

Studio 148 - Eat Me Ice Cream - A dark twist: squid ink soft serve

Studio 154 -  Brown Sugar Pastry - Haunted bakery with ghoulish treats, ghastly delights and a witch's brew!

Then see everyone come together in The Night Gallery. Studio 244 is transformed into an exhibit of the creepy and curious featuring the artwork of Haunted Hungerford studios. You can purchase pieces throughout the night, or wait until 9pm for the lights to come on.

Don't forget to come in costume! There will be a costume contest in studio 225 and the winners will get special gifts from the Haunted Hungerford studios! Follow on facebook and instagram and "like" your favorites to vote after the event. 

There is no admission fee, but please bring a toiletry donation for Sample Soap, which can be delivered to Studio 244 or Studio 242. 

Hungerford First-Timer? Here's a pro-tip: parking on First Fridays gets pretty packed, so come early, or come to the Saturday event! Bonus: Saturday will be even creepier as you roam the almost-abandoned hallways of this old factory building. A great kick-off to the Halloween season!

Click here to join the Facebook event, or like the Haunted Hungerford page to stay updated during this final week.